Harappan civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. It developed along the banks of the Indus River and its period was from approximately 2600 BC to 1900 BC. This civilization was spread in modern Pakistan and parts of India.
Earlier, Vedic civilization was generally considered to be the oldest civilization of India, but in 1920-21, under the direction of Sir John Marshall, a civilization older than 2500 BC was discovered by Dayaram Sahni at a place called Harappa.
As a result of new archaeological discoveries and excavations, the expansion of the Indus Valley Civilization is increasing. At present, more than 350 places related to this civilization have come to light. Harappan civilization is a Bronze Age civilization. Although some scholars also call it the Chalcolithic civilization. First of all, due to the knowledge of the ancient site called Harappa, it is called Harappan Civilization.
Facts related to the emergence of civilization
The Harappan culture first emerged in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent on a Chalcolithic background. In fact, we get the first information about this civilization from the description of an Englishman named Charles Memnon.
In 1826 AD, Charles Memon had recovered a large number of bricks from a place called Harappa.
1831 AD When Colonel Burns was going to meet King Ranjit Singh, his eyes fell on Harappa.
Alexander Cunningham inspected the ruins of Harappa in 1853 and 1857.
In 1850 AD, while laying the railway line between Karachi and Lahore, the ruins of Harappa were excavated, which gave an impression of the existence of a very ancient, fully developed civilization.
In 1921 AD, under the chairmanship of Sir John Marshall, the excavation work of Harappa and Mohenjodaro located in present day Pakistan was done by Shri Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni and Rakhaldas Banerjee respectively.
Extent and expansion of Harappan civilization
The extent and extent of the Harappan civilization extended across modern Pakistan and parts of India. This civilization extended from Afghanistan in the north to Gujarat in the south. In the west this civilization extended up to Iran, while in the east this civilization extended up to Rajasthan.
The boundary line of the Indus Valley Civilization extended from Manda in Jammu and Kashmir in the north to the mouth of Narmada in the south (Bhagatrava) and from Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh in the east to Sutkangedor in the west.
North-Manda (Jammu-Kashmir)
South – Daimabad
East – Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
West – Sutkangedor
Area of civilization – 12,99,600 square km. Length from east to west – 1,600 km.
Length from north to south – 1,100 km
Length to sea – 1,300 km
Regional expansion of civilization
1. Sindh region-Mohenjodaro, Amri, Kotdiji, Rehman Dheri, Sukkur, Alhadino, Chandudaro, Alimurad, Jhukar, Jhangar, Ghazishah, Kotrash, Terai Fort etc.
2. Afghanistan-Mundigak, Soratghai.
3. Balochistan-Kili Gul Muhammad, Mehrgarh, Rana Ghundai, Gumla, Dabarkot, Balakot, Nindobari, Anjira etc.
4. West Punjab-Harappa, Ganeriwala, Derawar, Jalilpur, Sanghanwala etc.
5. Gujarat-Dhaulavira, Lothal, Surkotada, Rangpur, Rozdi,
Desalpur, Prabhaspatnam, Bhagatava etc.
6. Rajasthan-Kalibanga, Bada, Hanumangarh, Shishwal, Mithal,
Chupas etc.
7. Haryana-Banwali, Bhagwanpura, Sharadigarhi.
8. Uttar Pradesh-Alamgirpur, Manpur, Bargaon, Hulas etc.
9. Punjab-Ropar, Saraikhel, Kotla, Nihang Khan etc.
Indus Valley Civilization sites and their Discoverers
1. Harappa (Montgomery District, Punjab, Pakistan) 1921 AD Dayaram Sahni
2. Mohenjodaro 1922 (Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan) Rakhaldas Banerjee
3.Sutkagedor 1927 E.R.L. Stine (Balochistan, Pakistan)
4. Amri 1929 E. M. G. Majumdar
5.Chandudaro (Sindh, Pakistan) 1931 E.M.G. Majumdar
6.Rangpur (Ahmedabad, Kathiawar, India) 1953 AD Madhoswaroop Vatsa Kotdiji (Singh, Pakistan) 1953 AD Dhurve
7. Ropad (Punjab, India) 1953 E.Y.D. Sharma
8. Kalibanga 1951 AD Amlanand Ghosh
9.Lothal 1957-63 E.S.R.Rao
10. Meerut, Uttar Pradesh 1958 AD Yagyadutt Sharma
11. Surkotada 1964 AD 1967-68 AD J.P. Joshi
12. Dholavira 1967-68 E.J.P Joshi
13. Meetathal Vanawali Periyon Ghundai 1973-74 AD
Chronology of Indus Valley Civilization
Historian
1. Sir John Marshall
2.Ernest Mackay
3. Madhoswarup Vatsa
4.Radio Carbon
5.Matimar Wyhler
6.NCERT
7.Fair Service
Time period
3250 AD – 2750 AD
2800 AD – 2500 AD
3500 AD – 1750 AD
2500 AD – 1800 AD
2300 AD – 1700 AD
2000 AD – 1500 AD
Founder of Indus Valley Civilization
1.According to Dr. Laxman Swaroop – Arya
2.According to Gardenchild – Sumerian
3.According to Rakhal Das Banerjee – Dravid
4.According to Wheeler – bandit slave
The largest Harappan site of the Harappan civilization
(1) Mohenjodaro
(2) Gunnerwala
(3) Harappa
(4) Dholavira
(5) Rakhigarhi
Largest Harappan site in India
(1) Dholavira
(2) Rakhigarhi
Capitals of Harappan Civilization
(1) Mohenjodaro (2) Harappa (3) Dholavira (4) Lothal (5) Kalibanga
Major sites of Indus Valley Civilization and their characteristics
Mohenjo Daro
It was situated on the right bank of the Indus River, which is currently situated in Larkana district of Sindh province of Pakistan.
1.Big Bathhouse-It is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide and 8 feet deep located inside the fort. In this, baked bricks have been used to strengthen the walls and floor. Its walls and floor were made waterproof. There was a system to clean the reservoir and other small rooms were built nearby. It was either a place of religious importance or a place of public entertainment.
2. The huge granary located inside the fort is 150 feet long and 50 feet wide. This is the largest building of civilization. Its presence indicates the existence of a decentralized taxation agency.
3. Auditorium – Located inside the Garhi, this rectangular hall is in four lines, which is based on 20 pillars. According to ‘Bahilar’, it was a building like the ‘Darbar Aam’ of the Mughals whereas ‘McKay’ considers it to be ‘Bazar Bhawan’.
4. A bronze statue of a dancer has been found here, from which it can easily be said that the tradition of dance in India is very old.
5. Human skeleton (probably massacred).
6. Pashupati Mahadev Muhad.
7. Evidence of woven fabric. Scale made from.
8. Shell 9. Statue of a bearded priest.
10. Cylindrical seal like Mesopotamian. 11. Evidence of destruction by flood.
12. Mother Goddess painted seal
13. Copper smelting furnace
14. The only evidence of window has been found from here.
15. Evidence of perfume
16. Fragmentary human statue of alabaster
Harappa
It is located on the left bank of the Ravi River in Montgomery district of western Punjab province.
This place was first excavated by Dayaram Sahni in 1921 AD, for this reason the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan Civilization.
1. Here six granaries have been found in two rows, each of which is 15.23 meters long and 6.09 meters wide. The entire area of these twelve units is equal to the area of the granary of Mohenjodaro. The granary of Mahanjodaro is located inside the citadel while the granary of Harappa is found outside the citadel in the lower city.
2. There are many platforms built near the granary here, which were used to separate grains from crops.
3. A settlement of small houses of the same style and size has been found, which may have been the residence of workers. Next to this settlement, 16 furnaces have been found which may have been a copper smelting factory.
4. 18 circular brick platforms were found next to the granary.
Near whom we found a mortar and pestle,
Due to which there is evidence of grain crushing.
5. Cemetary-R-37- This is the cemetery of Harappa from which out of 57 dead bodies recovered, only 37 were suitable for study, due to which it is named “Cemetary-R-37”.
6. Bronze ace and bullock cart.
7. Evidence of coffin Shambhadan. 8. One room barrack.
10. Attainment of Shringar Bavasa.
11. A foreigner who destroyed Old Harappa is likely buried in “Cemetery H”.
12. Vessel ornaments with corpse. 13. Donkey’s bones.
14. Material of brick industry.
15. Bronze Raquel.
16. Paper evidence.
17. Finding two stone idols.
(a) The torso of a man sitting in yoga posture.
(b) Headless figure made of gray stone in dancing posture
The idol is wearing a thin shawl. Marshall has
Considered to be the former form of Nataraja.
18. It is a platform to work.
19. Stone symbol of female genitalia. 20. Evidence of security in later times.
21. Wheat in the cracks of floorboards.
Chanhudaro
Chanhudaro is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization, located in present-day Pakistan. It is situated in the southern part of Sindh province, about 130 kilometers south of the famous Indus Valley site of Mohenjo-daro. Chanhudaro was inhabited from around 4000 to 1700 BCE
1. This is the only city which is not fortified.
2. A vessel was found here which appeared to be Daawat.
gives. A bead making factory has also been found here.
3. Evidence of craftsmen working with gold, silver, tin and copper is found here.
4. Bronze ace and bullock cart. Evidence of destruction by flood.
5. Evidence of lipstick.
6. Footprints of two animals running away.
9. Square seal.
10. Four-wheel clay toy cart.
Lothal
This site is located in Dha Taluka of Ahmedabad district of Gujarat state. This city was almost rectangular whose major axis was towards north-south. It was surrounded by a huge brick wall on all sides.
1. This is the only place where remains of an artificial harbor are found. (Artificial dockyard made of brick).
2. Remains of rice from 1800 BC are found here.3. A suspicious miniature statue of a horse has been found here. received in which ship
4. There is a picture of such a seal from this place. Terracotta ship.
5. Like Kalibanga, remains of fire worship were found here too.
6. House (front entry).
7. Evidence of a chess-like game.
8. Evidence of destruction by flood.
9. Bead making factory. 10. Metal workers’ factory.
11. Bronze rod. 12. Copper seal.
13. Copper dog.
14. Bone of bull in the pit.
15. Ivory scale.
16. Seal of the Gulf region of Iran.
17. Goods warehouse.
18. Evidence of pair burial.
Kalibanga
Evidence of Pre-Harappan and Harappan period has been found from this site located in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. In the Pre-Harappan phase, fields were plowed whereas in the Harappan period, fields were dug.
Evidence obtained
1. Both parts of the city were fortified.
2. Evidence of wooden plow of pre-Harappan period here
There are mills on the basis of which it can be said that plow was used in the fields of Rajasthan. Some fire pits have also been found here which were used for sacrificial rituals and yagya.
3. Remains of a solid wheel with one axle have also been found here, on the basis of which the existence of some type of vehicle for transportation is known.
4. Human brain made of hard clay.
5. Copper bull.
7. Evidence of surgery.
8. Developed cottage industries.
9. Graveyard.
Surkottada
Evidence from Sutkagendor (along the Dasht River, Balochistan province,Pakistan)This is the only place where definitive evidence of the existence of a horse is found (bone skeleton).
1. Evidence of port.
2. Evidence of Early Harappa and Late Harappa.
3. Utensil for cremation.
4. Scale of scales.
5. Evidence of four urn burials.
6 Fortification of both parts together (also in Lothal).
7. Evidence of covering the grave with stones.
8. Security guard’s room with grand entrance. Trying to build a protective wall of stones.
Rangpur
Rangpur is an ancient archaeological site located in Surendranagar district of Gujarat state, India. It is situated on the coastline between the present Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch. It dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization, and is located northwest of the larger site of Lothal.
Evidence obtained from Rangpur
1. Rice bran.
2. Raw brick forts.
3. Stone slabs.
4. Lumps of soil.
Ropar
The history of Ropar dates back to ancient times. An archaeological site from the time of Indus Valley Civilization is also located here. The modern history of Ropar starts from the Mughal period. At this time Ropar was under the Mughal Empire.
Evidence obtained from Ropar
1. A dog skeleton has been found here along with a human skeleton, which is similar to the practice of Burzahom and Mesopotamia. Some graves contain from 2 to 26 different types.
Utensils have been found.
Dholavira
Dholavira is an ancient archaeological site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat state, India. It is situated on the Tropic of Cancer. Dholavira is famous for the ruins of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
Dholavira was discovered by Indian archaeologist JP Joshi in 1967–68. The Archaeological Survey of India began excavation of the Dholavira site in 1989.
This city is one of the largest cities of the Harappan civilization. This city is divided into three sections whereas other cities of the civilization are divided into two sections. Of the three sections, two sections are inside the strong rectangular fort while the third section is located outside the fort.
The letters obtained from here are quite big. nine letters in a row
Which are not found in any other cities. Along with the grand entrance, a security guard’s room is also found here.
Alamgirpur
Alamgir (Uttar Pradesh, on the banks of Hindon River)
• This site indicates the beginning of the decline of the Harappan civilization.
1. A vessel containing human ashes.
2. Bangles and utensils made of clay.
3. Copper axe.
4. Evidence of trade relations with Babylon.
5. Existence of port.
Rakhigarhi
Rakhigarhi is an ancient archaeological site located in Hisar district of Haryana state, India. It is situated on the banks of Ghaggar river. Rakhigarhi dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization period, and was an important urban centre.
Rakhigarhi was discovered by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1963. ASI excavated the site from 1963 to 1992.
Rakhigarhi was a huge city, whose area was about 100 hectares. The city was well-planned, and had a central market, protected reservoir, and other public facilities.
Evidence obtained from Rakhigarhi
1. Plow made of clay.
2. Currency, on which there is an inscription in Indus script.
Urban Plannig
The well-planned manner in which cities have been built here cannot be seen anywhere else. Therefore, on the basis of archaeological evidence, scholars have named this civilization as urban civilization. Following are the features of city building:
1.Two parts of the city layout
(a) Garhi (on the height) – towards the west.
(b) Lower city – towards the east.
2.Garhi-usually fortified, rectangular and parallel
While the lower city was not fortified in sections, but
Exceptions are the lower cities of Lothal, Kalibanga and Fortifications have been found in Surkotada.
3.There was a common entrance to enter the city. The number of entrances could have been more than one.
4.The bastions built at some distance on the wall were generally higher than the defense wall but exceptionally, despite being a commercial capital, no bastion has been found in Lothal.
5.Generally the defense walls and towers were made of raw mud (exception – Surkotada stone wall, Mohenjodaro towers made of baked bricks).
Roads and Streets
1.Roads intersecting at right angles.
2.Generally three types of roads.
drainage system
1.Use of baked bricks in drain construction.
2.Provision of sewerage system parallel to Rajpath for houses, streets and subsidiary roads, which used to meet the river.
3.The drains are covered in some places.
4.Use of fluted bricks in joining at the corners.
Toilet
1.In the houses inside each fort.
2.Baked brick toilet.
3.Use of ‘L’ type bricks.
4.Wheeler compares it to the toilet of modern Western civilization.
Cleaning system
Earthen containers were kept to collect garbage and at some places pits were dug to collect garbage.
well
1.Well in all the houses inside the fort.
2.Use of pulley on wells to draw water.
3.Generally circular and oval well, which was present in almost all houses.
4.In the well made of baked bricks, foamed bricks were used and the floor was joined with bitumen.
social status
Clothes
Generally men and women used unstitched clothes.
2.Upper body
Cosmetics
Mirror made of copper.
Ivory (V shaped) comb. 3. Evidence of perfume, powder, lipstick, antimony, vermillion.
- Use of golden wires and laces for tying hair.
Means of entertainment
Favorite Sports: Hunting, fishing, public dancing, cock fighting, bull fighting, playing dice. Evidence of dice-from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Chess piece – It has been found from Lothal which has the distinctive shape of a bull, horse and frog. Means of Transport: People of Harappan civilization used bullock carts and horse carts as means of transport.
Meal
Prevalence of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food.
2.Wheat, barley, rice, fruits, vegetables, dates, watermelon, milk and curd manufactured items were used in vegetarian food.
3.Various animals were found in non-vegetarian food.
Unburned bones indicate that
They might have been used for meat. .
A fishing hook is found in every house which indicates the popularity of fish.
Treatment
The people of Indus Valley were familiar with the medical system. The evidence obtained from Lothal and Kalibanga makes it clear that they were also familiar with surgery. Shilajit, reindeer and deer horns were used as medicines.
Deceased Rites
Source: Three types of cremation methods from Harappa, Lothal, Kalibanga, Surkotada, Ropar and Mohenjodaro.
- Complete cremation- burying the dead body completely in the ground.
- Partial cremation – leaving the dead body for animals and birds to eat and burying the remaining remains.
Cremation-The dead body was burnt completely and the ashes were kept in a vessel and buried in the ground.
Political situation
Various scholars have given different opinions regarding the political situation. 1. Wheeler-Government System Middle Class Democratic
Belief in reincarnation
The finding of dogs, jewelery and utensils along with the dead bodies shows that the people of this civilization believed in reincarnation.
Crafts and technologies
Stone technology included the production of blades, the art of bead making and the technology of making rectangular seals from alabaster.
Bronze was made by metal craftsmen by mixing tin with copper. Less quantity of tin has been found in bronze, due to tin Imports were brought from Afghanistan with difficulty.
Burmas and chisels were used in weapons and tools which were made of copper. Aryans have been found from Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
5 copper daggers have been found from Harappa.
The Harappans were unfamiliar with iron. A piece of cotton cloth has been found from Mohenjodaro and impressions have been seen on many clothes.
Spindles were used for spinning. Goldsmiths used to make jewelery of gold, silver and various gems.
Potters used to make utensils on the wheel.
River status of urban areas
Centre/city/place
1. Harappa Ravi River
2. Mohenjodaro Indus
3. Kotdiji Indus
4. Chanhudaro Indus
5. Kotla Nihang Khan Indus
6. Gumla Indus
7. Rozdi Indus
8. Desalpur Bhadar
9. Rangpur Bhadar
10. Alamgirpur Hindon
11. Prabhashpatna Hiranya
12. Manda Chenab
13. Lothal Bhogwa
14. Sutkangedor Darak
15.Banawali Saraswati
16. Daimabad prabas
17. Balakot Bindar
18.Dhaulavira Looni
19. Sutakkoh Shadi Kaur
20.Bhagatarav kim
21.Kalibanga Ghagghar
Cause of decline of Harappan civilization
Many opinions have been given regarding the decline of the Harappan civilization, but even today it remains a matter of controversy as to how this civilization declined. In this context, various scholars have given different opinions which are as follows-
scholar
Marshall + Mackay – Indus River
Wheeler and Garden Child Foreign Invasions and Aryan Invasions
Aurel stein climate change
M.R. Sahni Population Growth
Raikes Dales environmental crisis